Effets de l’environnement urbain sur la santé des groupes vulnérables à Ondo, Nigeria
Adewale Olufunlola YOADE & Victor Abimbola ONIFADE
Abstract: This study examined the effects the urban environmental health has on vulnerable groups in Ondo, Nigeria. The paper seeks to determine how to reduce such health-risk among the vulnerable group of congested residential areas in Nigerian cities, particularly the city of Ondo. To effectively carry out this task, however, data are obtained on environmental variables involving material composition of buildings, source of water supply, as well as methods of waste disposal in the residential area. The primary data used were collected through questionnaire administration, direct observation and building demographic. The study however, concluded that while housing facilities in the inner city like many others traditional cities in Nigeria are in deplorable state, the socio-economic characteristics of the people in the neighborhoods is a great determinant towards having a guaranteed sustainable and healthy environment.
Keywords: Urban environment; health; vulnerable groups; physical characteristic, Ondo
Résumé: Cette étude examine les effets de la santé environnementale urbaine sur les groupes vulnérables à Ondo, au Nigeria. L’article cherche à déterminer comment réduire les risques pour la santé parmi les groupes vulnérables des zones résidentielles denses des villes nigérianes, en particulier dans la ville d’Ondo. Pour mener à bien cette recherche, les données obtenues à partir des variables environnementales portaient sur la composition matérielle des bâtiments, la source d’approvisionnement en eau, ainsi que sur les méthodes d’élimination des déchets dans la zone résidentielle. Les principales données utilisées ont été recueillies par l’administration de questionnaires, par l’observation directe et la démographie du bâtiment. L’étude conclut que si les logements dans le centre-ville, comme dans de nombreuses autres villes traditionnelles du Nigéria, sont dans un état déplorable, les caractéristiques socio-économiques des habitants des quartiers sont des facteurs déterminants pour garantir un environnement durable et sain.
Mots clés: Environnement urbain; santé; groupes vulnérables; caractéristiques physiques, Ondo
Plan
Introduction
Study Area
Materials and methods
Findings and discussions
Physical characteristics
Environmental characteristics
Effect of urban environmental health on residents in the high density area
Conclusion
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Introduction
The urban environment is a living organism; people react with it, and in turn it reacts with the people. It is the mirror with which we reflect our beings. Therefore, to look at our cities is to see into our future (UN-Habitat, 2006). What the present and the future of our cities hold for us differ from place to place and time to time. Urban cities attest to rapid urbanization particularly in the developing countries (UNDP, 2000). Available statistics evidenced that 43.1% of the population was urban in 1991. It is forecast to be 63.0% in 2030. The urban growth rate is 4.5% while the rural rate is 0.9%. Already some 50.0% of the world’s population lives in cities, within 25 years it will be 75.0%. Africa, currently the least urbanized continent, will have a majority of its population living in cities within 20 years (Damas and Israt, 2004) . It is clear that the future of the world lies in cities. This is where the battle for sustainable development will be won or lost (World Bank, 2001). Urbanization and its sustainable management are not without externalities.
The environment is a composite of behavioral settings which greatly affects the health of vulnerable persons. Environmental factors that affect health are in turn linked to underlying pressures on the environment Babatunde and Shuaibu, 2009; Sogbon, 2012). These pressures are a result of intense urbanization witnessed by most developing countries Owoeye (2009). In a recent United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Ondo is presently estimated to be 3,441,024 and is expected to hit the 5.5 million population mark and thus be among the ten most populous cities in Nigeria by the year 2025. This is indeed frightening, considering the small size of the state put at 300sqkm and the type of density just stated the weak infrastructural base to support such a huge population and, the current economic growth rate which is below 13%. Omole (2008), exposure prevalence study which concluded that, overall, 99.8% of deaths associated with risk factors are in developing countries, and 90% are deaths of children (Omoleke, 2008).
However, these hazards have changed from the traditional factors often caused by poverty and insufficient development, and include lack of safe drinking water, inadequate sanitation and waste disposal methods to more modern hazards which are more global (Afon, 1998; Okafor, 2008). These include; lack of coordinated health and environmental safeguards, air pollution, over-consumption of natural resources, widespread water pollution, population sprawl, intensive industrial development, climate change, and stratospheric ozone depletion. Each of these environmental hazards is associated with a variety of economic and social determinants of health (Yoade and Adeyemi, 2015). The term ‘vulnerable groups’ however, is used just as a convenient (but misleading) shorthand for showing concern for a long list of groups considered more at risk, without a need to ask why they are vulnerable and what needs to change (Tomori, 2011). An individual or household is said to be vulnerable to a risk (such as malaria-spreading mosquitoes, contaminated water or a flood) if they are more susceptible to being harmed or killed by it, or less able to cope or adapt to the poor environment (to lessen the risk). The lives of infants and young children are generally more at risk from malaria and contaminated water than the lives of adults. The focus for this study is therefore to assess urban environmental health among vulnerable groups and response when environmental amenities are not available. Using a case study approach, the study will focus on ancient and emerging city of Ondo, Nigeria.
Study Area
Ondo city one of the major urban center in Ondo State and the city is located on latitude 06°301N and longitude 04°451E. The city is bounded on the north by Oluji/ Okeigbo local government, on the east by Idanre local government, on the west and south by Odigbo local government. The population of the town stood at 113,900 during the 1991 population census. Ondo falls within the ‘tropical wet and dry climate’ with a relatively small dry season. Currently, there are 12 political wards in Ondo city. Consequently, rainfall in Ondo is seasonal in character with well-marked wet and dry seasons. The dry period comes between November and February, while the wet season lasts for 8 months from March to October; the mean annual rainfall is about 1615mm. the annual mean temperature is 27°C, with a maximum of 30°C.
Ondo landscape is made up of generally undulating hills of granite outcrop of igneous origin, and is marked by few dome-shaped hills. The hills are found to be developed over the basement complex of metamorphic rocks and their summits ranging between 250 and 500 metres above sea level (Akintola, 1982). The town has no major river; rather it is drained by several streams with fairly wide flood plains. The important of these streams are Luwa, Lisaluwa and Mode. The town falls within the moist/wet lowland forest i.e. it has thick forested vegetation, but due to human activities most of these original forest has been replaced with secondary re-growth. Currently, there are 12 political wards in Ondo city (figure 1).
Source: Ondo west Town Planning Office
Figure 1. Map of the Study Area
Materials and methods
Data for the study were obtained from both primary and secondary sources. For collection of primary data, the set of questionnaires, targeted at the residents of the study area; was administered using systematic sampling method. In all, there are twelve political wards in the study area; out of five political wards fall under the core area (high density), four wards fall under (medium density) while the remaining three fall under low density area and these become the sample frame. Simple random sampling was used to select a ward randomly from each density. Systematic sampling technique was used in selecting residents to be sampled. The first building was chosen randomly. Subsequent unit of investigation was every 10th residential building in each ward. Sources of secondary data included maps from Planning Office, journals, conference proceedings, unpublished thesis and books. Data collected were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 23. Also, descriptive (tables, pictures, cross tabulation) were used to analyze the data collected.
Findings and discussions
This section discusses the results and discussion of the findings obtained from the study. The section is divided into three (3) sections. Section one discusses the physical characteristics of the study area; while section two discusses the environmental characteristics of the study area and section three discusses effects of urban environmental health on residents in the study area.
Physical characteristics
The physical condition of the study area varied in each density. This is because at the low and medium residential density area most buildings used modern building material while at the high residential area majority still used corrugated iron sheets for roofing sheets, some still lived in mud houses. Findings revealed that 69.7% of the residents lived in flats while 20.5% lived in face-to-face buildings and 9.7% lived in duplex respectively. In disaggregated manner, in the high density area, 64.0% of the residents’ lived in flats and 36.0% lived in face-to-face. In the medium density area, 79.7% live in flat buildings, 17.2% lived in face-to-face buildings while the remaining 3.1% lived in duplex. Also in the low density area, 65.2% lived in block of flats and 34.8% lived in duplex. All these indicate that there is variation in the type of houses the residents occupy across the selected densities of the study area.
Revealed that majority of the respondents 65.3% in the high density area used cement block, 32.0% used mud and 2.7% used brick. In the medium density area 96.9% used cement block and 3.1% used brick. In the low density area, the entire (100%) respondents used cement block.
It is revealed that majority of the residents (69.6%) used aluminum roofing sheet while the remaining 30.4% used asbestos for roofing in the low residential density area; in the medium density area 78.1% used asbestos, 18.8% used aluminum roofing sheet while the remaining 3.1% was on decking level. In the high density area, 77.3% used corrugated iron sheet, 20.0% used asbestos while the remaining 2.7% was on decking level. All these therefore show the variation in the roofing materials used in various densities in Table 1.
Source: Yoade (2017)
Table 1. Physical Characteristics
Urbanization yields several positive effects if it happens within the appropriate limits. Some of the positive implications of urbanization therefore include creation of employment opportunities, technological and infrastructural advancements, improved transportation and communication, quality educational and medical facilities, and improved standards of living Bartone, et al (1994). However, extensive urbanization mostly results in adverse effects. Urbanization attracts people to cities and towns which lead to high population increase. With the increase in the number of people living in urban centers, there is continued scarcity of houses. This is due to insufficient expansion space for housing and public utilities, poverty, unemployment, and costly building materials which can only be afforded by few individuals.
Overcrowding is a situation whereby a huge number of people live in a small space. This form of congestion in urban areas is consistent because of overpopulation and it is an aspect that increases day by day as more people and immigrants move into cities and towns in search of better life. Most people from rural or undeveloped areas always have the urge of migrating into the city that normally leads to congestion of people within a small area. The problem of joblessness is highest in urban areas and it is even higher among the educated people. It is estimated that more than half of unemployed youths around the globe live in metropolitan cities. And, as much as income in urban areas is high, the costs of living make the incomes to seem horribly low. The increasing relocation of people from rural or developing areas to urban areas is the leading cause of urban unemployment.
Environmental characteristics
Various methods of waste disposal employed by the residents of the city of Ondo are illustrated in the Table 2. Majority of the respondents in the high density area 62.7% dumped their refuse using waste collector of the LG, 21.3% practiced burning, while only 16.0% of the residents dump into run-off water. In the medium density area, 75.0% used waste collector of the LG, 21.9% practiced open burning and 3.1% dump into run-off water. In the low density area, all the respondents 100.0% used waste collector of the LG.
The study also revealed that in the high density area 73.3.8% of the respondents have open drainages, 5.3% has closed drainages while 21.3% had no drainage system at all. In the medium density area, 79.7% f the respondents have open drainages, 6.3% has closed drainages and 14.1% had no drainage system at all. In the low density area, 69.6% of the respondents have open drainages and the remaining 30.4% had no drainage system at all.
Because of overpopulation and rapid population increase in most urban centers, it is common to know that there are inadequate sewage facilities. Municipalities and local governments are faced with serious resource crisis in the management of sewage facilities. (Basta, 1977), as a result, sanitation becomes poor and sewages flow chaotically, and they are drained into neighboring streams, rivers, lakes, or seas. Eventually, communicable diseases such as typhoid, dysentery, plague, and diarrhea spread very fast leading to suffering and even deaths. Overcrowding also highly contributes to water scarcity as supply falls short of demand. The social, economic and living conditions in congested urban areas affects access and utilization of public health care services. Slum areas in particular experience poor sanitation and insufficient water supply which generally make slum populations susceptible to communicable diseases. The environmental problems such as urban pollution also cause many health problems namely allergies, asthma, infertility, food poisoning, cancer and even premature deaths.
When more people move to towns and cities, one of the major challenges posed is in the transport system. More people means increased number of vehicles which leads to traffic congestion and vehicular pollution. Many people in urban areas drive to work and this creates a severe traffic problem, especially during the rush hours. Also as the cities grow in dimension, people will move to shop and access other social needs or wants which often cause traffic congestion and blockage. Issues of lack of resources, overcrowding, unemployment, poverty, and lack of social services and education habitually leads to many social problems including violence, drug abuse, and crime. Most of the crimes such as murder, rape, kidnapping, riots, assault, theft, robbery, and hijacking are reported to be more prominent in the urban vicinities. Besides, poverty related crimes are the highest in fast-growing urban regions. These acts of urban crime normally upset the peace and tranquility of cities and towns.
Effect of urban environmental health on residents in the high density area
This section analyses and interprets data collected on the effects the urban environment has on the health of respondents in the study area, with respect to the following; unavailability of quality and affordable housing, unemployment, overcrowding, lack of medical facilities, lack of educational facilities, development of slum, water and sanitation problem among others.
The variables used to assess the effects the urban environment has on the health of respondents involved the subjection of the feelings of the residents in the study area to a 5-point Likert scale in which the feelings of the people were rated as 1= strongly disagree; 2= disagree; 3= fairly agree; 4= agree and 5= strongly agree; to measure the effect of urban environmental health on respondents in the study area. The findings are as presented in the following tables (Table 3, 4 and 5).
Source: Yoade (2017)
Table 2. Environmental Characteristics
S.D= Strongly Disagree; D= Disagree; F.A= Fairly Agree; A= Agree and S.A= Strongly Agree
Source: Yoade (2017)
Table 3. Effect of Urban Environmental Health on Residents in the High Density Area
S.D= Strongly Disagree; D= Disagree; F.A= Fairly Agree; A= Agree and S.A= Strongly Agree
Source: Yoade (2017)
Table 4. Effect of Urban Environmental Health on Residents in the Medium Density Area
Findings revealed that poor health and spreading of disease rank 1st while inadequate to safe drinking water rank the least in high density area. The implication of this is that most vulnerable in the area are exposed to attract on their health due to the environment they find themselves and consequently resulting into spreading of disease in the neighbourhood. It could also deduced from the study that the vulnerable group in the area have access to drinkable water to some extent as it was rank least from the result of the analysis (Table 3).
Also, findings revealed that poor health and spreading of disease rank 1st while lack of medical facilities ranks the least in high density area. The implication is that their environment in which they live attracts so many communicable disease and they prone to such attack. It could be deduced that the vulnerable group lack medical facilities in their location and they have to travel a distant for medical attention (Table 4).
Findings revealed that urban crime rank 1st while lack of affordable housing ranks the least in high density area. The implication is that despite the security measure put in place in this zone, they still experience urban crime and this could be attributed to the caliber of people residing there. Also, the vulnerable group in the zone finds it difficult to get affordable housing in the area due to the high rate of accommodation fee (Table 5).
S.D= Strongly Disagree; D= Disagree; F.A= Fairly Agree; A= Agree and S.A= Strongly Agree
Source: Yoade (2017)
Table 5. Effect of Urban Environmental Health on Residents in the Low Density Area
The cost of living in urban areas is very high. When this is combined with random and unexpected growth as well as unemployment, there is the spread of unlawful resident settlements represented by slums and squatters. The growth of slums and squatters in urban areas is even further exacerbated by fast-paced industrialization, lack of developed land for housing, large influx of rural immigrants to the cities in search of better life, and the elevated prices of land beyond the reach of the urban poor.
This study adopts the concept of Sustainable Development as an operational framework that embodies the principles, ideals and values of the environmental healthiness. It is seen as desirable and necessary if the world is to deal effectively with the current global problems of the environment and development process. The concept express environment as the aggregate of the physical and biological entities outside of man that support the existence of human whether on land, in water or air Owoeye (2009). It is undoubtedly the very basis of human existence which has profound influence on the health, welfare and productivity of individuals thereby becoming a viable stimulant to national growth and economic development (WHO, 1987). As a result, health and environment should be seen as essential inseparable part of human development which cannot be upheld as though they operate in a vacuum. Generally, there are two principal groups of environmental problems that are peculiar to high-density residential zone of a city: the presence in the human environment of pathogens because of lack of basic infrastructure and services like sewers, drains or services to collect solid and liquid wastes and safely dispose of them; crowded, congested and cramped living conditions in which the people live (UN-Habitat, 1989).
It was further submitted that lack of infrastructure, readily available drinking water, sewerage connection (or other system to dispose human wastes hygienically), garbage collection and basic measure to prevent diseases and provide primary health care ensure many deliberating and endemic conditions among the vulnerable groups. Diseases include diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever; intestinal parasites and food poisoning are very common in such environment. Most cities in Africa and Asia have no sewers at all. Human excrement and waste water are disposed in rivers, streams, canals, gullies and ditches. Such constitute great danger to human environment.
In a similar study Brundtland (2003) identified six major classes of environmental risks to include: inadequate access to safe drinking water, poor hygiene and sanitation, inadequate water resource management, air pollution (indoor and outdoor), chemical hazards and unintentional injuries. He reported that in 2000, an estimated 1.1 billion people lacked access to an improved water source. As at the 2003 about 2.4 billion people around the world do not have access to any type of improved sanitation facilities. Equally, air pollution was identified as a serious risk-factor for respiratory disease and a major contributor to ill health among children around the world. Studies reported in WHO (2004) shows that about 2 million children die each year from acute respiratory infections alone with indoor air pollution from cooking and heating. Diarrhea, a disease related to inadequate water and sanitation was identified the second biggest child killer, claiming about 1.3 million children each year. It is clearly observed that most developing nations of the world are located in the tropics where communicable diseases are very rife.
Conclusion
Generally, poverty tends to breed poor environmental and unhygienic conditions that have great impact on human health. This is because the poor are incapable of paying for the required amenities for a healthy living, most especially, quality housing thus they become vulnerable to health hazards. To avert this situation and ensure good environmental standard, the ongoing national policy of sustainable minimum wage should be extended to all and sundry. Besides, public enlightenment and environmental education would be necessary to keep the people well informed about the importance of healthy and hygienic environment.
This study has identified environmental health factors experienced by the residents of the three residential density communities, the high-density communities as epitomized in a residential core area of Ondo. However, the followings are some of the conclusions drawn from the findings. The first to be considered is the need for quality housing and hygienic environment. To achieve this, extensive redevelopment and upgrading programmes through the provision of urban basic services are essential in the area priority should be given to provision of more portable water, disposal facilities, and proper maintenance of drainages. Sanitary inspections showed are regularly carried out on provision of household facilities with the enforcement of environmental sanitary laws. Adequate funding should be given to Waste Management Authority for effective service as well as improved health facilities in the Area.
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To cite this article
Electronic reference
Adewale Olufunlola YOADE & Victor Abimbola ONIFADE (2021). « Effects of urban environmental health among vulnerable groups in Ondo, Nigeria ». Canadian journal of tropical geography/Revue canadienne de géographie tropicale [Online], Vol. (8) 2. Online December 25, 2021, pp. 45-50. URL: https://revuecangeotrop.ca
Authors
Adewale Olufunlola Yoade
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
Wesley University Ondo, Nigeria
Email: yoadewale@yahoo.com
Victor Abimbola Onifade
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
University of Lagos, Nigeria
